PSY 3044 - LECTURES > Learning-Classical & Operant Conditioning

I. WHAT IS LEARNING?

A. A relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience

II. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

A. Pavlov and the elements of classical conditioning

1. A neutral stimulus (NS) does not cause any particular reaction

a. A light, for example, is just a light

2. An unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented after NS

a. pairing a light with the presentation of food, for example

3. This transforms the NS into a conditioned stimulus (CS)

a. US and CS pairing elicits an unconditioned response (UR)

4. Over time, CS alone can elicit a conditioned response (CR)

a. The light by itself, for example, can produce salivation

B. Phobias

1. Irrational fears can be brought on by classical conditioning

2. Systematic desensitization, also using classical conditioning, can help

C. John Watson, Little Albert, and the ethics of research

1. Watson's famous demonstration showed conditioning of a fear response

D. Pleasant unconditioned stimuli

1. Not all of classical conditioning is buzzers, noises, and drool

a. Pleasant stimuli, as when eating or enjoying, follow these rules too

E. Other aspects of classical conditioning

1. Acquisition

a. Sequence of CS-US presentation

i. Trace conditioning

ii. Delayed conditioning

iii. Simultaneous conditioning

iv. Backward conditioning

b. Strength of the US

c. Number of CS-US pairings

2. Extinction

3. Spontaneous recovery

4. Generalization and discrimination

F. Classical conditioning and our motives

1. Learned motives and learned goals follow classical conditioning principles

G. Current trends in classical conditioning

1. Contingency theory

a. Stronger contingencies predict stronger conditioning

2. Blocking

a. CS is weakened if paired with a US previously paired to other CS

3. Overshadowing

a. Two CS are presented, neither experienced previously

H. Taste-aversion learning and preparedness

1. Taste-aversion

a. Novel tastes paired with illness outcomes produce potent learning

2. Preparedness

a. Species biologically ready to associate some CSs with some USs

III. OPERANT CONDITIONING

A. Reinforcers

1. Primary and secondary reinforcers

a. Primary reinforcers have innate reinforcing properties

i. Pizza is its own reward

b. Secondary reinforcers are associated with primary reinforcers

i. Cash, for example, gets associated with pizza

2. Positive and negative reinforcers

a. Positive reinforcers are presented after a response occurs

b. Negative reinforcers are removed because a response has occurred

c. Regardless of direction, reinforcers make behavior more likely

B. B.F. Skinner and the "Skinner Box"

1. Cumulative record shows the rate of responding

a. Steeper lines mean higher rates of response

C. Shaping

1. Successive approximations to desired behavior are reinforced

D. Schedules of reinforcement

1. Continuous reinforcement

a. Reinforcement comes after each desired response

2. Intermittent or partial reinforcement

a. Ratio schedules

i. Fixed-ratio: Reinforcement after fixed number of responses

ii. Variable ratio: Reward after variable number of responses

b. Interval schedules

i. Fixed-interval: Reinforcement after constant time elapses

ii. Variable-interval: Reward after varying time intervals

E. The role of cognition

1. Insight learning

a. Sudden, "A-ha!," learning that comes from restructuring stimuli

2. Latent learning

a. Learning takes place but is not immediately demonstrated

3. Serial enumeration

a. Remembering series of events and responding when next they occur

4. Decision-making strategies

a. Animals use decision-making strategies when foraging

5. Encoding visual stimuli

a. Cognitive encoding of stimuli can take place

6. Social communication of taste preferences

a. Social patterns influence amount and type of food consumed

F. Punishment: The opposite of reinforcement

1. Punishers decrease the rate of responding

a. Law of Effect describes conditions that increase responding

2. To be effective, punishment must meet certain criteria

a. Delivered immediately after undesirable response has occurred

b. Strong enough to make a real difference

c. Delivered after each and every undesired response

d. No unauthorized escape from the punisher

e. Be prepared for displaced aggression or aggressive responding

f. Provide alternative desired behavior

IV. EXTINCTION

A. The partial reinforcement effect

1. Extinction of response is more difficult following partial reinforcement

B. Operant conditioning and stimulus control

1. Discrimination plays an important role in operant conditioning

V. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

A. Social learning through watching and imitating the behavior of others

1. Identification with the "modeler" makes vicarious reinforcement easier

B. Guidelines for successful modeling

VI. BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

A. Applying learning theory to alter maladaptive behavior