PSY 3044 - LECTURES > Thinking & Intelligence

I. THINKING

A. Cognitive psychology: A division of psychology concerned with mental activities

1. Thinking: Manipulation of information via images or concepts

2. Images

a. Mental-rotation studies suggest people work with mental images

b. Some material is more easily imagined than others

3. Concepts: Mental categories sharing common characteristics

B. Thinking and language

1. Linguistic relativity hypothesis is correct in broad terms

a. Language and thought are closely linked

2. Using language to limit thought

a. Doublespeak and euphemisms may influence and limit our thinking

C. Problem solving

1. Problem-solving methods

a. Algorithms

i. Systematic procedures for reaching a solution

b. Heuristics

i. Mental rules of thumb

2. Obstacles and aids to problem solving

a. Setting subgoals

i. Solving smaller portions of an overall problem

b. Approach to representing problems

i. Organization of information can aid problem solving

c. Rigidity

i. Functional fixedness hinders our ability to see solutions

d. The set effect

i. Past experience may bias us toward certain strategies

3. Making decisions

a. Seeking information to confirm a solution

i. Confirmation bias commits us to pursuing one hypothesis

b. Representativeness

i. Similarity to a category sways our likelihood judgments

ii. Gambler's fallacy is an example

c. Availability

i. Probability judgment swayed by ease of generating examples

d. Comparison

i. Standards may differ depending on the situation

e. Framing

i. The way a decision is framed leads to risk aversion or risk seeking

D. Creativity

1. Defining creativity

a. Although slippery, creativity may be defined by consensus

2. Measuring creativity

a. Creativityź intelligence

b. Divergent thinking may be a marker of creativity

c. Creativity as the ability to produce novel, appropriate work

3. Personal factors in creativity

a. Capacity for hard work

b. Willingness to take risks

c. Tolerance for ambiguity

4. Situational factors in creativity

a. Mood, reward, motivation, attention are all factors

5. Enhancing creativity at work

a. Nike, Velcro, and Frito-Lay are examples of creativity in the workplace

II. INTELLIGENCE

A. The history of intelligence testing

1. Galton, Binet, Simon are early pioneers

a. Mental age is a concept that found a wide audience

2. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

a. Stern (in Germany), Terman (in US) introduce intelligence quotient

3. The Wechsler Scales

a. WIPPSI, WISC, WAIS

B. Principles of psychological tests

1. Reliability

a. Consistency of the measuring instrument

i. Test-retest, alternate forms are examples

2. Validity

a. Accuracy of the measuring instrument

i. Content, predictive, construct are examples

3. Standardization

a. Administration is the same across groups, settings, times

i. Norms provide a reference for interpretation

ii. Normal curve describes population distribution

C. Extremes of intelligence

1. Exceptional children

a. "Exceptional" refers to intelligence at the low or high end of scale

2. Savant syndrome

a. Individuals with severe intellectual deficit show remarkable abilities

D. Kinds of intelligence

1. Spearman's Model

a. General intelligence (g), some specific abilities (s)

2. Sternberg's model

a. Triarchic theory of intelligence

i. Analytical intelligence

ii. Creative intelligence

iii. Practical intelligence

3. Gardner's multiple intelligences

a. Seven distinct kinds of intelligence are proposed

E. Misuse of intelligence tests

1. Eugenics, immigrant testing, and labeling reflect negligent use of tests

F. Hereditary and environmental determinants of intelligence

1. Hereditary determinants

a. Heritability estimates of intelligence range from 50 to 80 percent

b. Identical and fraternal twins, adoptees used to study this issue

2. Environmental determinants of intelligence

a. Environmental stimulation contributes to intellectual performance

i. Evidence is not without criticism

- Evaluating Headstart program

- Interpreting increases in standardized test scores

3. Explaining differences in intelligence scores

a. Differences in average intelligence scores invite several explanations