Theories of Vocational Development
Vocational development is the process by which individuals choose a career path or occupation. Many theories approach it largely as a developmental process of youth ... culminating in the choice and actualization of the first career. Individuals continue to develop vocationally throughout their lives, and many have several major careers as personal needs and interests change.
Trait-Factor Theories of vocational development go as far back as the early writings of Frank Parsons (Choosing Your Vocation, 1909). They hold that individuals need to understand their abilities, aptitudes, interests and skills (traits) and match these to the specific requirements and demands (factors) of different occupations. The successful matching of individual traits with job factors is the key to a successful and satisfying vocational choice.
The psychoanalytic perspective generally views work as an unpleasant activity that requires the reality oriented Ego to to suppress and control the pleasure oriented Id. A highly successful and satisfying career choice will typically involve the Ego employing the defense mechanism of sublimation. For example, individuals might sublimate aggressive tendencies through military, sports, or even surgical careers; exhibitionistic needs through acting; power needs through politics; and voyeurism by becoming a professional counselor where one is able to look into the most intimate corners of peoples' lives. Sublimation is the key to understanding psychologically satisfying career choices.
From the psychoanalytic perspective, Ann Roe postulated that children with cold and rejecting early parent/child relationships would be inclined to choose careers not significantly involving people interactions, and those with warm and accepting early parent/child relationships careers with substantial people interactions. Research has not supported this, but in psychoanalytic theory the defense mechanisms of reaction formation and over compensation explain opposite choices.
The roots of Donald Super's extensive writings on vocational development are in the Self Theory of Carl Rogers. According to Super, when making vocational choices individuals act in relation to their understanding of themselves. Psychologically, career choices are driven by Self-Concepts.
It follows that making satisfying vocational choices requires an accurate understanding of Self. This is achieved through Person-Centered values clarification. Understanding SELF is the key to making a successful vocational choice.
It is also necessary, however, to understand the requirements and work activities of different occupations. If knowledge of any occupation or its demands are inaccurate, that occupation cannot be properly evaluated in relation to one's Self-Concept.
Growth (Birth to 14)
During this period the child is developing physically and psychologically, and is laying the foundation for a self-concept that will be critical to future vocational choices.
Exploration (15 to 24)
Here the individual begins to develop an awareness of occupations. In the early or fantasy period of this phase the individual's choices are frequently unrealistic and related to play life. The tentative period comes next and choices are narrowed, but there is still incomplete knowledge of self and the world of work. In the final period of this phase the individual further narrows the list of possible choices to more realistic goals given improved knowledge of self and the world.
Establishment (25 to 40)
Here the individual is in actual work situations, experiencing some that fit and others that do not. An occupation is selected that offers the best chance to obtain satisfaction.
Maintenance (Middle age to 65)
Here the individual continues in and attempts to improve their situation in a chosen occupation. They try to maximize the satisfying aspects of their work and minimize the unsatisfying aspects.
Decline (65 and over)
This includes the preretirement phase where the individual's attention is on continuing to meet the minimum requirements of the job rather than on enhancing their position. It culminates in leaving the work force.
Ginzberg's developmental theory of career choice postulates that individuals pass through three major stages before making their first significant vocational choice. He further proposed substages within each of the major stages.
Fantasy (Birth to 11)
Here the child thinks of occupations in relation to their fantasies about being an adult. There is no significant consideration of personal abilities or occupational demands.
Tentative (11 to 17)
Here in late childhood and adolescence the individual is focused largely on themselves. They evaluate their interests (approximately 11-12), capacities (13-14), and values (15-16).
Realistic (17 to 18 and up)
John Holland's model holds that different personality types are best suited to different careers. He proposed six basic personality types and then identified careers they were best suited to enter. Holland's model is a modern trait-factor theory that has been very influential in vocational counseling. It is employed by popular interest inventories such as the Self-Directed Search, Vocational Preference Inventory, and Strong Interest Inventory.
Holland's six personality types are arranged along a hexagonal model with opposite work environments across from one another on the hexagon and more closely related work environments next to one another. The Realistic type contrasts most sharply with the Social type, the Investigative with the Enterprising, and the Conventional with the Artistic.
| Realistic | Investigative | ||||
| Conventional | Artistic | ||||
| Enterprising | Social |
Realistic
These individuals deal best with an environment that is objective and physical. They like stereotypical masculine, outside and hands-on activities. They are most comfortable in work environments dealing with machines, equipment, tools, nature, athletics and crafts. They tend to dislike Social occupations.
Investigative
These individuals deal best with an environment that is intellectual. They enjoy working with ideas, words or symbols. They prefer scientific and theoretical pursuits that can largely be pursued through their individual effort. They tend to dislike Enterprising occupations.
Social
These individuals deal best with an environment that involves working with people in some helping, teaching, or serving capacity. They enjoy social interaction and being around others. They tend to dislike Realistic occupations.
Conventional
These individuals deal best with an environment that is concrete and predictable. They enjoy structure and routine, and often like office practices and computational work. They tend to dislike Artistic occupations.
Enterprising
These individuals deal best with an environment that is adventurous, energizing and challenging. They are extroverted and enjoy power, dominance, and persuasive communication. Business and supervisory occupations are chosen, and they tend to dislike Realistic occupations.
Artistic
